Germanium
Germanium atomic absorption standard solution
CAS: 7440-56-4;14374-81-3
Molecular Formula: Ge
Germanium - Names and Identifiers
Germanium - Physico-chemical Properties
| Molecular Formula | Ge |
| Molar Mass | 72.64 |
| Density | 5.35 g/mL at 25 °C (lit.) |
| Melting Point | 937 °C (lit.) |
| Boling Point | 2830 °C (lit.) |
| Water Solubility | insoluble H2O, HCl, dilute alkali hydroxides; attacked by aqua regia [MER06] |
| Vapor Presure | 0Pa at 25℃ |
| Appearance | powder |
| Specific Gravity | 5.35 |
| Color | Silver |
| Exposure Limit | ACGIH: TWA 0.5 ppm(2.5 mg/m3); Ceiling 2 ppm (Skin)OSHA: TWA 3 ppmNIOSH: IDLH 30 ppm(250 mg/m3); TWA 3 ppm(2.5 mg/m3); Ceiling 6 ppm(5 mg/m3) |
| Merck | 13,4419 |
| Storage Condition | Flammables area |
| Stability | Stable. Slightly soluble in strong acids. Incompatible with strong oxidizing agents. |
| Sensitive | Sensitive to humidity |
| MDL | MFCD00085310 |
| Physical and Chemical Properties | Gray-white metal. Melting point 937.4 °c. Boiling point 2830 °c. Relative density d25295.35, soluble in concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid, aqua regia, insoluble in water, alkali. |
| Use | For the purification of germanium and semiconductor industry |
Germanium - Risk and Safety
| Risk Codes | R36/37/38 - Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin. R36/38 - Irritating to eyes and skin. R11 - Highly Flammable |
| Safety Description | S26 - In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice. S36/39 - S2 - Keep out of the reach of children. |
| UN IDs | UN 3089 4.1/PG 2 |
| WGK Germany | 3 |
| RTECS | LY5200000 |
| TSCA | Yes |
| HS Code | 28053090 |
| Hazard Class | 8 |
| Packing Group | III |
Germanium - Nature
Open Data Verified Data
silver-white brittle metal. Melting point 925~975 ℃; Boiling point 2700 ℃;d4 25 323. Soluble in aqua regia, concentrated nitric acid or sulfuric acid, molten alkali, nitrate or carbonate, insoluble in water, hydrochloric acid, dilute caustic solution. It is not oxidized in air. Its fine powder can be burned in chlorine or bromine. Germanium is chemically stable and does not interact with air or water vapor at room temperature. Because germanium does not work with carbon, it is usually melted in a graphite crucible. With good semiconductor properties.
Last Update：2024-01-02 23:10:35
Germanium - Preparation Method
Open Data Verified Data
can be obtained from the reduction of germanium dioxide with carbon and smelting.
Last Update：2022-01-01 09:06:19
Germanium - Introduction
Brittle, crystalline germanium has a diamond structure, is stable in air at room temperature, and can be oxidized at high temperatures. Powdered germanium can be burned in chlorine or bromine. Insoluble in water, hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid. Soluble in concentrated nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid or aqua regia. Insoluble in dilute caustic solution; soluble in molten caustic, nitrate or carbonate to form germanate. It can be combined with vulcanization to produce vulcanized germanium.
Last Update：2022-10-16 17:28:21
Germanium - Use
Open Data Verified Data
high-purity germanium is a semiconductor material for manufacturing semiconductor devices. Germanium single crystals doped with trace amounts of specific impurities can be used to make various transistors, rectifiers and other devices. The high-purity germanium single crystal has a high refractive index, is transparent to infrared rays, does not transmit visible light and infrared rays, and can be used as a prism or lens for transmitting infrared light. Germanium compounds are used in the manufacture of fluorescent plates and a variety of high refractive index glasses. It is also used in radiation detectors and thermoelectric materials.
Last Update：2022-01-01 09:06:20
Germanium - Safety
Open Data Verified Data
can stimulate the skin, mucous membranes and eyes, the maximum allowable concentration in the air (Ge) is 1mg/m3. Production personnel should wear work clothes, masks, latex gloves and other labor protection articles. Should be stored in a cool, ventilated, dry, clean, non-chemical corrosive atmosphere of the warehouse. Moisture-proof. It should not be stored and mixed with acid and alkali products. In the transport process to prevent rain, shock. Handling should be careful to prevent collision and rolling, to prevent mechanical damage.
Last Update：2022-01-01 09:06:20
Germanium - Reference Information
| resistivity | 53000 ***-CM, 20°C |
| crystal Structure | Cubic, Diamond Structure - Space Group Fd3m |
| LogP | 4.14 at 20℃ |
| NIST chemical information | information provided by: webbook.nist.gov (external link) |
| EPA chemical substance information | information provided by: ofmpeb.epa.gov (external link) |
| Introduction | germanium is a hard brittle gray metalloid element, Symbol: Ge, belongs to group 14 of the periodic table (previously IVA). germanium is present in zinc sulfide and certain other sulfide ores and is obtained primarily as a by-product of zinc smelting. During zinc or copper refining, most of the germanium is recovered as a by-product. It is also present in certain types of coal (up to 1.6%). A small amount is used for special alloys, but the main use depends on its semiconductor properties. Chemically, it forms compounds in the 2 and 4 oxidation states, and germanium (IV) compounds are more stable. This element also forms a large amount of organometallic compounds. It was predicted by ekasil icon in 1871 and discovered by Winklerin in 1886. Germanium has been widely used in early semiconductor devices, but has now been replaced by silicon. It is used as an alloying agent, Catalyst, phosphor and infrared device. There are 38 isotopes of germanium, 5 of which are stable. The stable isotopes of germanium and their natural abundances are as follows: Ge-70 = 20.37%,Ge-72=27.31%,Ge-73=7.76%,Ge-74 = 36.73%, Ge-76 = 7.83%. The 76 isotope is considered stable because it has a long half-life (0.8 x 10 25 years). All the other 33 isotopes are radioactive and are all artificially produced. |
| History of discovery | Mendeleev predicted the existence of this element in his periodic plan of 1871. It is predicted that it should belong to the carbon group and occupy the position below the silicon. Therefore, he named it Eka silicon. Fifteen years later, in 1886, Clemens Winkler discovered the predicted element and separated it from the mineral silver-pyrophyllite. It is named in memory of Germany. most of germanium exists in the form of sulfide ore in nature. It is present in a germanite mineral (7CuS • FeS • GeS2). Magnesite (4 Ag2S • GeS2); Siderite (Cu,Ge,Fe,Zn,As)S; Calcareite; 4 Ag2S. Small amounts of zinc are also found in many zinc mixed ores, which are commercially extracted in the United States. Small amounts of germanium are also found in many coals. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is about 1.5 mg/kg, and its concentration in seawater is 0.05g/L. |
| Source | germanium is the 52nd most abundant element in the crust, which is widely distributed, but it has never been found in its natural elemental state. It is always combined with other elements, especially oxygen. Germanium resources in the global distribution is very concentrated, mainly in China, the United States and Russia, the country with the largest distribution of germanium resources is the United States, retained reserves of 3870 tons, accounting for 45% of the global content, china accounted for 41% of the world. The main minerals of germanium are germanium ore, lonite, magnesite and ettringite, which are all rare. Small amounts of germanium are found in zinc ores and in copper and arsenic ores. It is well known that it is concentrated in certain plants on the Earth, especially in coal, and that a considerable amount of soot can be collected from the chimney of the burning coal. |
| Application | the rare element metal germanium (Ge) has a gray-white crystalline appearance and an extremely high hardness: 6.25 Mohs. It has a specific gravity of 5.35 and a melting point of 937 °c. It is resistant to acids and alkalis. It has a metallic appearance crystal with a diamond structure, giving aluminum and magnesium alloys higher hardness and strength, while tin as low as 0.35% doubles the hardness. However, due to its rarity and high price, it is not commonly used in alloys. It is mainly used as a metal rectifier and transistor. A gold-germanium alloy containing about 12% germanium, with a melting point of 359°C, has been used for welding jewelry. germanium, a by-product obtained from flue dust in the zinc industry, can also be obtained by reducing its oxide from ore and sold in irregular small blocks. Germanium crystals were grown in rods up to 3.49 in diameter for the fabrication of transistor wafers. High-purity crystals were used for both P and N semiconductors. They are easier to purify and have a lower melting point than other semiconductors, in particular silicon. by far the most common use of germanium is in the semiconductor and electronics industries. As a semiconductor, germanium can be used in the fabrication of transistors, diodes, and various types of computer chips. Only by adding a variable amount of impurity (doping) to the germanium crystal, it can be designed to act as the first element of different types of semiconductors in various applications. germanium also finds many other applications, including use as an alloying agent, as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps, and as a catalyst. Germanium and germanium oxide are transparent to infrared and can be used in infrared spectrometers and other optical devices, including ultra-sensitive infrared detectors. The high refractive index and dispersibility of germanium oxide make it useful as a glass component for use in wide-angle camera lenses and microscope objectives. The field of organo-Germanium chemistry is becoming increasingly important. Certain germanium compounds are less toxic to mammals, but have significant activity against certain bacteria, making them possible as chemotherapeutic agents. |
| preparation | germanium is usually obtained as a by-product of zinc production from mixed zinc ores. The ore is concentrated by a flotation process. The concentrated ore is then calcined to convert the zinc and impurity metals to their oxides. Heating the crude oxide with sodium chloride and coal converts germanium and other impurity metal oxides to their volatile chlorides. The chloride vapor is condensed and the germanium chloride is separated from the condensate by fractional distillation. germanium is also recovered from coal containing trace metals. The coal ash and fine powder are mixed with sodium carbonate, copper oxide, calcium oxide and pulverized coal, and then smelted. The crude oxide product is converted to its volatile chloride. The germanium chloride is separated from the condensed product by fractional distillation. Germanium of high purity (99.9999%) can be obtained by fractionation of the chloride in hydrochloric acid and chlorine in a quartz distiller, followed by hydrolysis of the pure chloride with double distilled water to produce germanium oxide geo2. The oxides were reduced with hydrogen at 1000 °c. Ultra-high purity germanium for semiconductors can be obtained from high purity grade materials by a zone refining process. Impurities in germanium are more soluble in the melt than solid metals. Therefore, repeating the melting zone along the impure germanium ingot can effectively remove trace impurities in the solid metal ingot. doping of the metal for its solid-state electronic use can be achieved by adding a trace amount of a dopant to the melt and then growing a single crystal from the melt, or by solid-state diffusion into the prepared single crystal. Single crystals up to several inches in diameter can be produced from the melt by the Czochralski technique, which involves contact with the seed crystal in inert air with controlled temperature and spreading conditions. |
| Chemical reaction | the chemical properties of germanium are between silicon and tin. It forms both divalent and tetravalent compounds, and oxidation state 4 is more stable than oxidation state 2. The metal is stable in air and water at ambient temperature. However, it reacts with oxygen at elevated temperatures to form divalent and tetravalent oxides GeO and geo2. Although it does not react with dilute mineral acids, the compound is corroded by concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Similarly, no reaction with caustic occurs. when heated with carbon dioxide at 800°C, divalent oxides are formed: Ge CO2 → GeO CO when heated at high temperature, the metal will also reduce the tetravalent oxide to divalent oxide: Ge GeO2 → 2GeO under high temperature heating with chlorine to produce germanium tetrachloride: Ge 2Cl2 → gesl4 |
| toxicity | can stimulate the skin, mucous membranes and eyes, the maximum allowable concentration in the air (Ge) 1 mg/m3. Production personnel should wear work clothes, masks, latex gloves and other labor protection articles. |
| Use | for the manufacture of semiconductor devices. for the purification of germanium and Semiconductor Industry |
| production method | industrial production there are crucible Czochralski method and suspension zone melting method. The components of the equipment, the alloy quartz crucible, the high purity germanium and the seed crystal were cleaned before the Czochralski. The high purity germanium is added into the alloy quartz crucible of the single crystal furnace through the blending and doping, and then the vacuum is pumped and melted. Under the circulating argon atmosphere, the crystal is artificially introduced into the shoulder and the tail. In the process of Crystal equal diameter growth, the power should be properly adjusted according to the situation to obtain products with uniform diameter. After testing and weighing, the final product of germanium single crystal was obtained. |
| toxic substance data | information provided by: pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (external link) |
Last Update：2024-04-09 21:04:16
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Mobile: 18021002903
QQ: 3008007409
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